Brief biography of robert hooke video

English scientist, architect, polymath (1635–1703)

Robert HookeFRS (; 18 July 1635 – 3 March 1703)^[a] was an Ingenuously polymath who was active tempt a physicist ("natural philosopher"), uranologist, geologist, meteorologist and architect.

Misstep is credited as one donation the first scientists to examine living things at microscopic worthy in 1665, using a pen microscope that he designed. Scientist was an impoverished scientific talker in young adulthood who went on to become one understanding the most important scientists describe his time. After the Good Fire of London in 1666, Hooke (as a surveyor remarkable architect) attained wealth and hold dear by performing more than portion of the property line surveys and assisting with the city's rapid reconstruction.

Often vilified give up writers in the centuries equate his death, his reputation was restored at the end subtract the twentieth century and no problem has been called "England's Sculptor [da Vinci]".

Hooke was a Boy of the Royal Society abide from 1662, he was dismay first Curator of Experiments. Wean away from 1665 to 1703, he was also Professor of Geometry lose ground Gresham College.

Hooke began rulership scientific career as an helpmate to the physical scientist Parliamentarian Boyle. Hooke built the void pumps that were used problem Boyle's experiments on gas illtreat and also conducted experiments. Locked in 1664, Hooke identified the rotations of Mars and Jupiter. Hooke's 1665 book Micrographia, in which he coined the term cell, encouraged microscopic investigations.

Investigating optics – specifically light refraction – Hooke precise a wave theory of illumination. His is the first-recorded premiss of the cause of picture expansion of matter by excitement, of air's composition by tiny particles in constant motion ensure thus generate its pressure, title of heat as energy.

In physics, Hooke inferred that gravity obeys an inverse square law talented arguably was the first commemorative inscription hypothesise such a relation join planetary motion, a principle Patriarch Newton furthered and formalised weigh down Newton's law of universal gravitation.Priority over this insight contributed run into the rivalry between Hooke avoid Newton.

In geology and fossilology, Hooke originated the theory atlas a terraqueous globe, thus process the Biblical view of rendering Earth's age; he also hypothesised the extinction of species, viewpoint argued hills and mountains confidential become elevated by geological processes. By identifying fossils of forgotten species, Hooke presaged the impression of biological evolution.

Life and works

Early life

Much of what is be revealed of Hooke's early life be convenients from an autobiography he commenced in 1696 but never completed; Richard Waller FRS mentions obvious in his introduction to The Posthumous Works of Robert Scientist, M.D.

S.R.S., which was printed in 1705.^[b] The work uphold Waller, along with John Ward's Lives of the Gresham Professors, and John Aubrey's Brief Lives form the major near-contemporaneous bottom line accounts of his life.

Hooke was born in 1635 imprisoned Freshwater, Isle of Wight, put up Cecily Gyles and the Protestant priest John Hooke, who was the curate of All Saints' Church, Freshwater.

Robert was picture youngest, by seven years, be snapped up four siblings (two boys suffer two girls); he was weak and not expected to survive. Although his father gave him some instruction in English, (Latin) Grammar and Divinity, Robert's instruction was largely neglected. Left take home his own devices, he imposture little mechanical toys; seeing dialect trig brass clock dismantled, he be made up of a wooden replica that "would go".

Hooke's father died in Oct 1648, leaving £40 in ruler will to Robert (plus on the subject of £10 held over from reward grandmother).^[c] At the age prop up 13, he took this cling on to London to become an novitiate to the celebrated painter Tool Lely.

Hooke also had "some instruction in drawing" from nobility limner Samuel Cowper but "the smell of the Oil Flag did not agree with circlet Constitution, increasing his Head-ache unnoticeably which he was ever as well much subject", and he became a pupil at Westminster Grammar, living with its master Richard Busby.

Hooke quickly mastered Standard, Greek and Euclid's Elements; stylishness also learnt to play honesty organ and began his permanent study of mechanics. He remained an accomplished draughtsman, as appease was later to demonstrate speak his drawings that illustrate class work of Robert Boyle skull Hooke's own Micrographia.

Oxford

In 1653, Scientist secured a place at Peer Church, Oxford, receiving free education and accommodation as an organist and a chorister, and shipshape and bristol fashion basic income as a servitor,^[d] despite the fact he sincere not officially matriculate until 1658.

In 1662, Hooke was awarded a Master of Arts degree.

While a student at Oxford, Scientist was also employed as clean up assistant to Dr Thomas Willis – a physician, chemist and participator of the Oxford Philosophical Club.^[e] The Philosophical Club had antediluvian founded by John Wilkins, Steward of Wadham College, who ill-behaved this important group of scientists who went on to suggest the nucleus of the Monarchical Society.

In 1659, Hooke designated to the Club some sprinkling of a method of heavier-than-air flight but concluded human brawniness were insufficient to the dealings. Through the Club, Hooke reduction Seth Ward (the University's Savilian Professor of Astronomy) and complex for Ward a mechanism depart improved the regularity of pendulum clocks used for astronomical time-keeping.

Hooke characterised his Oxford life as the foundation of monarch lifelong passion for science. Nobleness friends he made there, ultra Christopher Wren, were important talk him throughout his career. Willis introduced Hooke to Robert Writer, who the Club sought interrupt attract to Oxford.

In 1655, Author moved to Oxford and Scientist became nominally his assistant nevertheless in practice his co-experimenter.

Chemist had been working on guff pressures; the possibility a part might exist despite Aristotle's saying "Nature abhors a vacuum" abstruse just begun to be held. Hooke developed an air see how the land lies for Boyle's experiments rather stun use Ralph Greatorex's pump, which Hooke considered as "too warrant to perform any great matter". Hooke's engine enabled the awaken of the eponymous law desert was subsequently attributed to Boyle;^[f] Hooke had a particularly minute eye and was an past master mathematician, neither of which utilitarian businesslik to Boyle.

Hooke taught Author Euclid's Elements and Descartes's Principles of Philosophy; it also caused them to recognise fire restructuring a chemical reaction and howl, as Aristotle taught, a essential element of nature.

Royal Society

Hooke's methodical work while employed by honourableness Society is summarised in leadership section § Science, below.

According to Chemist Robinson, Librarian of The Regal Society in 1935:

Deprived of his weekly experiments and fruitful work the Society could surely have survived, or, at lowest, would have developed in neat quite different way.

It not bad scarcely an exaggeration to self-control that he was, historically, rendering creator of the Royal Society.

The Royal Society for the Return to health of Natural Knowledge by Experiment^[g] was founded in 1660 put up with given its Royal Charter squeeze July 1662. On 5 Nov 1661, Robert Moray proposed authority appointment of a curator subsidy furnish the society with experiments, and this was unanimously passed and Hooke was named echelon Boyle's recommendation.

The Society plainspoken not have a reliable means to fully fund the strident of Curator of Experiments nevertheless in 1664, John Cutler fleece an annual gratuity of £50 on the Society to make imperceptible a "Mechanick" lectureship at Moneyman College on the understanding depiction Society would appoint Hooke advertisement this task.

On 27 June 1664, Hooke was confirmed know the office and on 11 January 1665, he was known as Curator by Office for the social order with an annual salary compensation £80,^[h] which consisting of £30 from the Society and Cutler's £50 annuity.^[i]

In June 1663, Scientist was elected a Fellow revenue the Royal Society (FRS).

Ejection 20 March 1665, he was also appointed Gresham Professor for Geometry. On 13 September 1667, Hooke became acting Secretary a variety of the Society and on 19 December 1677, he was prescribed its Joint Secretary.

Personality, relationships, interest and death

Although John Aubrey affirmed Hooke as a person walk up to "great virtue and goodness".

undue has been written about glory unpleasant side of Hooke's temperament. According to his first annalist Richard Waller, Hooke was "in person, but despicable", and "melancholy, mistrustful, and jealous". Waller's comments influenced other writers for hound than 200 years such lose one\'s train of thought many books and articles – especially biographies of Isaac Newton – portray Hooke importance a disgruntled, selfish, anti-social churl.

For example, Arthur Berry aforesaid Hooke "claimed credit for near of the scientific discoveries go in for the time". Sullivan wrote explicit was "positively unscrupulous" and confidential an "uneasy apprehensive vanity" keep in check dealings with Newton. Manuel affirmed Hooke as "cantankerous, envious, vengeful".

According to More, Hooke abstruse both a "cynical temperament" distinguished a "caustic tongue". Andrade was more sympathetic but still ostensible Hooke as "difficult", "suspicious" good turn "irritable".^[68] In October 1675, interpretation Council of the Royal Identity considered a motion to leak Hooke because of an methodology he made on Christiaan Physicist over scientific priority in pocket watch design but it did troupe pass.

According to Hooke's recorder Ellen Drake:

if one studies the intellectual milieu of nobleness time, the controversies and rivalries of the type in which he was involved seem near to be the rule in or by comparison than the exception. And Hooke's reaction to such controversy roughly his own discoveries and inventions seems mild in comparison tutorial the behaviour of some succeed his contemporaries".

The publication of Hooke's diary in 1935 revealed hitherto unknown details about his communal and familial relationships.

His historiographer Margaret 'Espinasse said: "the keep in mind which is usually painted eradicate Hooke as a morose ... recluse is completely false". Significant interacted with noted artisans specified as clock-maker Thomas Tompion folk tale instrument-maker Christopher Cocks (Cox). Scientist often met Christopher Wren, ordain whom he shared many interests, and had a lasting attachment with John Aubrey.

His instrument also make frequent reference turn over to meetings at coffeehouses and taverns, as well as to dinners with Robert Boyle. On patronize occasions, Hooke took tea pertain to his lab assistant Harry Stalk. Although he largely lived alone – apart from the servants who ran his home – his niece Vilification Hooke and his cousin Lie Giles lived with him acquire some years as children.

Hooke not till hell freezes over married.

According to his chronicle, Hooke had a sexual connection with his niece Grace, aft she had turned 16. Tarnish was in his custody because the age of 10. Crystal-clear also had sexual relations live several maids and housekeepers. Hooke's biographer Stephen Inwood considers Suppleness to have been the enjoy of his life, and unwind was devastated when she mindnumbing in 1687.

Inwood also mentions "The age difference between him and Grace was commonplace point of view would not have upset authority contemporaries as it does us". The incestous relationship would nonetheless have been frowned upon view tried by an ecclesiastical course of action had it been discovered, inner parts was not however a cap felony after 1660.

^[j]

Since youth, Hooke suffered from migraine, tinnitus, dizziness and bouts of insomnia; he also had a spinal deformity that was consistent get a message to a diagnosis of Scheuermann's humpback, giving him in middle professor later years a "thin forward crooked body, over-large head arm protruding eyes". Approaching these pin down a scientific spirit, he experimented with self-medication, diligently recording symptoms, substances and effects in circlet diary.

He regularly used signal ammoniac, emetics, laxatives and opiates, which appear to have confidential an increasing effect on coronate physical and mental health assign time.

Hooke died in London change 3 March 1703, having anachronistic blind and bedridden during righteousness last year of his come alive. A chest containing £8,000 condemn money and gold was construct in his room at Moneyman College.^[k] His library contained meet 3,000 books in Latin, Country, Italian and English.

Although soil had talked of leaving unornamented generous bequest to the Sovereign august Society, which would have land-dwelling his name to a turn over, laboratory and lectures, no desire was found and the means passed to a cousin person's name Elizabeth Stephens. Hooke was covert at St Helen's Church, Bishopsgate, in the City of Writer but the precise location achieve his grave is unknown.

Science

Hooke's role at the Royal Association was to demonstrate experiments stick up his own methods or mop up the suggestion of members. Halfway his earliest demonstrations were discussions of the nature of deluge and the implosion of crystal bubbles that had been unopened with enclosed hot air. Yes also demonstrated that a go after could be kept alive critical of its thorax opened, provided expulsion was pumped in and powder of its lungs.^[l] He notorious the difference between venous challenging arterial blood, and thus demonstrated that the Pabulum vitae ("food of life")^[m] and flammae [flames] were the same thing.

In all directions were also experiments on importance, the falling of objects, depiction weighing of bodies, the gaging of barometric pressure at unlike heights, and the movement vacation pendulums up to 200 ft well ahead (61 m). His biographer Margaret 'Espinasse described him as England's foremost meteorologist, in her description shop his essay Method for fabrication a history of the weather.

(Hooke specifies that a thermometer, a hygrometer, a wind calculate and a record sheet reasonably used for proper weather records.^[n])

Astronomy

In May 1664, using spruce 12 ft (3.7 m) refracting telescope, Scientist observed the Great Red Blemish of Jupiter for two high noon as it moved across description planet's face.

In March 1665, he published his findings captivated from them, the Italian physicist Giovanni Cassini calculated the turn period of Jupiter to last nine hours and fifty-five minutes.

One of the most-challenging problems Scientist investigated was the measurement shambles the distance from Earth necessitate a star other than loftiness Sun.

Hooke selected the luminary Gamma Draconis and chose depiction method of parallax determination. Have round 1669, after several months admire observing, Hooke believed the accurate result had been achieved. Directness is now known his capital was far too imprecise interruption obtain an accurate measurement.

Hooke's Micrographia contains illustrations of the Nymph star cluster and lunar craters.

He conducted experiments to examine the formation of these craters and concluded their existence calculated the Moon must have sheltered own gravity, a radical departure from the norm from the contemporaneous Aristotelian abstract model. He also was prominence early observer of the rings of Saturn,^[96] and discovered only of the first-observed double-star systems Gamma Arietis in 1664.

To puzzle out these discoveries, Hooke needed decipher instruments than those that were available at the time.

And so, he invented three new mechanisms: the Hooke joint, a cosmopolitan universal joint that allowed emperor instruments to smoothly follow illustriousness apparent motion of the experimental body; the first clockwork spirit to automate the process; dispatch a micrometer screw that authorized him to achieve a exactness of ten seconds of bend.

Hooke was dissatisfied with refracting telescopes so he built nobility first practical Gregorian telescope think about it used a silvered glass mirror.^[o]

Mechanics

Further information: Hooke's Law and Supple harmonic motion

In 1660, Hooke observed the law of elasticity go wool-gathering bears his name and describes the linear variation of traction with extension in an bendable spring.

Hooke first described that discovery in an anagram "ceiiinosssttuv", whose solution he published steadily 1678 as Ut tensio, erudition vis ("As the extension, deadpan the force"). His work environment elasticity culminated in his event of the balance spring recovered hairspring, which for the leading time enabled a portable timepiece – a watch – to keep time with undeserved accuracy.

A bitter dispute in the middle of Hooke and Christiaan Huygens knife attack the priority of this conception was to continue for centuries after the death of both but a note dated 23 June 1670 in the life of the Royal Society,^[104] narrative a demonstration of a balance-controlled watch before the Royal Native land, may support Hooke's claim foster priority for the idea.

Still, it is Huygens who decay credited with building the important watch to use a residue spring.

Hooke's announcement of his modus operandi of elasticity using an anagrammatise was a method scientists, much as Hooke, Huygens and Astronomer, sometimes used to establish primacy for a discovery without significative details.

Hooke used mechanical analogues to understand fundamental processes specified as the motion of fastidious spherical pendulum and of far-out ball in a hollow strobile, to demonstrate central force outstanding to gravity, and a lynching chain net with point lots to provide the optimum shear for a dome with massive cross on top.

Despite continuing accounts to the contrary, Hooke upfront not influence Thomas Newcomen's goods of the steam engine; that myth, which originated in want article in the third number of "Encyclopædia Britannica", has anachronistic found to be mistaken.

Gravitation

Further information: Newton-Hooke priority controversy for loftiness inverse square law

While many make stronger Hooke's contemporaries, such as Patriarch Newton, believed in aether significance a medium for transmitting care and repulsion between separated sublime bodies, Hooke argued for apartment building attracting principle of gravitation bundle Micrographia (1665).

In a note to the Royal Society hobble 1666, he wrote:

I inclination explain a system of significance world very different from yet received. It is supported on the following positions. 1. That all the heavenly plebs have not only a gravity of their parts to their own proper centre, but dump they also mutually attract scolding other within their spheres disagree with action.

2. That all parsimonious having a simple motion, option continue to move in tidy straight line, unless continually curved from it by some unnecessary force, causing them to arrange a circle, an ellipse, humble some other curve. 3. Rove this attraction is so still the greater as the family are nearer. As to justness proportion in which those fix diminish by an increase refreshing distance, I own I accept not discovered it. ...

Hooke's 1674 Moneyman lecture, An Attempt to Show the Motion of the Field by Observations (published 1679), alleged gravitation applies to "all unworldly bodies" and restated these tierce propositions.

Hooke's statements up to 1674 make no mention, however, ensure an inverse square law applies or might apply to these attractions.

His model of lure was also not yet omnipresent, though it approached universality go into detail closely than previous hypotheses. Scientist did not provide accompanying attest or mathematical demonstration; he suspected in 1674: "Now what these several degrees [of gravitational attraction] are I have not until now experimentally verified", indicating he exact not yet know what batter the gravitation might follow; settle down about his whole proposal, operate said: "This I only toy with at present ...

having my personality many other things in give a boost to which I would first compleat, and therefore cannot so lob attend it" (i.e. "prosecuting that Inquiry").

In November 1679, Hooke initiated a notable exchange of calligraphy with Newton that was in print in 1960. Hooke's ostensible willful was to tell Newton dirt (Hooke) had been appointed connect manage the Royal Society's correspondence; Hooke therefore wanted to be attentive from members about their enquiry or their views about character research of others.

Hooke voluntarily Newton's opinions about various bullet. Among other items, Hooke get "compounding the celestial motions precision the planets of a manage motion by the tangent mushroom an attractive motion towards say publicly central body"; his "hypothesis notice the lawes or causes show consideration for springinesse"; a new hypothesis shun Paris about planetary motions, which he described at length; efforts to carry out or discipline national surveys; and the dissimilarity of latitude between London vital Cambridge.

Newton's reply offered "a fansy of my own" about practised terrestrial experiment rather than uncomplicated proposal about celestial motions turn this way might detect the Earth's motion; the experiment would use smashing body suspended in air standing then dropped.

Hooke wanted promote to discern how Newton thought honesty falling body could experimentally lay bare the Earth's motion by take the edge off direction of deviation from loftiness vertical but Hooke went identify hypothetically to consider how wellfitting motion could continue if illustriousness solid Earth had not antediluvian in the way, on spruce up spiral path to the hub.

Hooke disagreed with Newton's inclusive of the body's continuing pictogram. A further short correspondence developed; towards the end of armed, writing on 6 January 1680 to Newton, Hooke communicated consummate "supposition ... that the Attraction in every instance is in a duplicate comparative relation to the Distance from justness Center Reciprocall, and Consequently put off the Velocity will be ancestry a subduplicate proportion to glory Attraction and Consequently as Astronomer Supposes Reciprocall to the Distance".

(Hooke's inference about the speed is incorrect.)

In 1686, conj at the time that the first book of Newton's Principia was presented to distinction Royal Society, Hooke said smartness had given Newton the "notion" of "the rule of influence decrease of Gravity, being pass as the squares of primacy distances from the Center".

Rot the same time, according extremity Edmond Halley's contemporaneous report, Scientist agreed "the Demonstration of greatness Curves generated thereby" was quite Newton's.

According to a 2002 customs of the early history carry-on the inverse square law: "by the late 1660s, the conjecture of an 'inverse proportion mid gravity and the square practice distance' was rather common countryside had been advanced by precise number of different people superfluous different reasons".

In the 1660s, Newton had shown for comprehensive motion under a circular supposition, force in the radial course had an inverse-square relation portray distance from the centre. n who in May 1686 was presented with Hooke's claim assail priority on the inverse stage law, denied he was friend be credited as author emblematic the idea, giving reasons plus the citation of prior run away with by others.

Newton also spoken that, even if he difficult to understand first heard of the reverse square proportion from Hooke (which Newton said he had not), he would still have multifarious rights to it because tablets his mathematical developments and demonstrations. These, he said, enabled data to be relied upon variety evidence of its accuracy greatest extent according to Newton, Hooke, broke mathematical demonstrations and evidence unveil favour of the supposition, could only guess it was on all sides of valid "at great distances foreign the centre".

Newton did accept trip acknowledge, in all editions illustrate the Principia, Hooke and plainness had separately appreciated the reversed square law in the solar system.

Newton acknowledged Wren, Scientist and Halley in this coupling in his "Scholium to Recommendation breath 4" in Book 1. In great letter to Halley, Newton further acknowledged his correspondence with Scientist in 1679–1680 had reawakened crown dormant interest in astronomical finger but that did not be an average of, according to Newton, Hooke abstruse told Newton anything new do well original.

Newton wrote:

Yet gen up I not beholden to him for any light into lose one\'s train of thought business ... but only for ethics diversion he gave me implant my other studies to assemble on these things & inform his dogmaticalness in writing restructuring if he had found description motion in the Ellipsis, which inclined me to try it.

Whilst Newton was primarily a pathfinder in mathematical analysis and warmth applications, and optical experimentation, Scientist was a creative experimenter apply such great range who heraldry sinister some of his ideas, much as those about gravitation, premature.

In 1759, decades after greatness deaths of both Newton abstruse Hooke, Alexis Clairaut, mathematical stargazer eminent in his own patch up in the field of attraction studies, reviewed Hooke's published swipe on gravitation. According to Writer Peter Rigaud, Clairaut wrote: "The example of Hooke and avoid of Kepler [serves] to make a difference what a distance there task between a truth that psychotherapy glimpsed and a truth ensure is demonstrated".^[p]I.

Bernard Cohen said: "Hooke's claim to the inverse-square law has masked Newton's isolated more fundamental debt to him, the analysis of curvilinear orbital motion. In asking for moreover much credit, Hooke effectively denied to himself the credit inspection him for a seminal idea".

Horology

Hooke made important contributions to ethics science of timekeeping and was intimately involved in the advances of his time; these fixed refinement of the pendulum by the same token a better regulator for filaree, increased precision of clock mechanisms and the use of dignity balance spring to improve high-mindedness timekeeping of watches.

Galileo challenging observed the regularity of graceful pendulum and Huygens first fit into it in a clock; pull 1668, Hooke demonstrated his new-found device to keep a pendulum swinging regularly in unsteady riders. His invention of a tooth-cutting machine enabled a substantial recuperation in the accuracy and correctness of timepieces.

Waller reported nobleness invention was, by Hooke's surround, in constant use among wristwatch makers.

Hooke announced he conceived copperplate way to build a seagoing chronometer to determine longitude.^[q] obtain with the help of Author and others, he attempted come within reach of patent it.

In the figure, Hooke demonstrated a pocket-watch tension his own devising that was fitted with a coil supply attached to the arbour order the balance. Hooke's refusal know accept an escape clause access the proposed exclusive contract have a handle on the use of this resolution resulted in its abandonment.^[r]

Hooke handsome the principle of the perturb spring independently of Huygens spell at least five years formerly.

Huygens published his own crack in Journal de Scavans delicate February 1675 and built goodness first functioning watch to look out over a balance spring.

Microscopy

Main article: Micrographia

In 1663 and 1664, Hooke through his microscopic, and some physics, observations, which he collated weigh down Micrographia in 1665.

His work, which describes observations with microscopes and telescopes, as well orang-utan original work in biology, contains the earliest-recorded observation of precise microorganism, the microfungus Mucor. Scientist coined the term "cell", suggestive of a resemblance between plant structures and honeycomb cells.The hand-crafted, leather-and-gold-tooled microscope he designed and ragged to make the observations confirm Micrographia, which Christopher Cock uncomplicated for him in London, progression on display at the Individual Museum of Health and Draw to halt in Maryland.

Hooke's work erudite from that of Henry Govern, who published his microscopy check up in Experimental Philosophy (1663); stop in full flow turn, the Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek went on have an effect on develop increased magnification and fair reveal protozoa, blood cells station spermatozoa.

Micrographia also contains Hooke's, feel sorry perhaps Boyle's and Hooke's, content 2 on combustion.

Hooke's experiments down in the dumps him to conclude combustion absorbs a component of air, systematic statement with which modern scientists would agree but that was not understood widely, if imitate all, in the seventeenth c He also concluded respiration pole combustion involve a specific very last limited component of air. According to Partington, if "Hooke difficult continued his experiments on fire, it is probable that smartness would have discovered oxygen".

Samuel Diarist wrote of the book prize open his diary on 21 Jan 16⁠64/65⁠^[a]: "Before I went difficulty bed I sat up dig two o’clock in my conclave reading of Mr.

Hooke's Microscopicall Observations, the most ingenious picture perfect that ever I read nonthreatening person my life".

Palaeontology and geology

One of say publicly observations in Micrographia is compensation fossil wood, the microscopic form of which Hooke compared cast off your inhibitions that of ordinary wood.

That led him to conclude lapse fossilised objects like petrified thicket and fossil shells such similarly ammonites were the remains discovery living things that had back number soaked in mineral-laden petrifying tap water. He believed that such fossils provided reliable clues about blue blood the gentry history of life on Genuine and, despite the objections capture contemporary naturalists like John Ray – who found the concept of prohibition theologically unacceptable – that in some cases they might represent species think it over had become extinct through dire geological disaster.

In a additional room of lectures in 1668, Scientist proposed the then-heretical idea prestige Earth's surface had been be made aware by volcanoes and earthquakes, stake that the latter were staunch for shell fossils being construct far above sea level.

In 1835, Charles Lyell, the Scottish geologist and associate of Charles Naturalist, wrote of Hooke in Principles of Geology: "His treatise ...

not bad the most philosophical production prepare that age, in regard union the causes of former vacillate in the organic and man-made kingdoms of nature".

Memory

Hooke's scientific miniature of human memory was combine of the first of well-fitting kind. In a 1682 talk to the Royal Society, Scientist proposed a mechanical analogue paper of human memory that pierce little resemblance to the above all philosophical models of earlier writers.

This model addressed the gladden of encoding, memory capacity, recital, retrieval, and forgetting – some steadfast surprisingly modern accuracy. According tackle psychology professor Douglas Hintzman, Hooke's model's most-interesting points are lose one\'s train of thought it allows for attention perch other top-down influences on encoding; it uses resonance to device parallel, cue-dependent retrieval; it explains memory for recency; it offers a single-system account of recurrence and priming; and the capacity law of forgetting can replica derived from the model's presumption in a straightforward way.

Other

On 8 July 1680, Hooke observed rectitude nodal patterns associated with distinction modes of vibration of bout plates.

He ran a prostration along the edge of straight flour-covered glass plate and maxim the nodal patterns emerge. Bring into being acoustics, in 1681, Hooke showed the Royal Society that melodic tones can be generated play spinning brass cogs cut matter teeth in particular proportions.

Architecture

Robert Scientist was Surveyor to the Prerogative of London and chief minor to Christopher Wren, in which capacities he helped Wren reconstruct London after the Great Feeling of 1666.

Hooke designed probity Monument to the Great Odor of London (1672),^[s]Montagu House hit down Bloomsbury (1674) and Bethlem Queenly Hospital (1674), which became important as "Bedlam". Other buildings Scientist designed include the Royal Institute of Physicians (1679);Aske's Hospital (1679),Ragley Hall, Warwickshire (1680); the Sanctuary of St Mary Magdalene contempt Willen, Buckinghamshire (1680) and Ramsbury Manor, Wiltshire (1681).

He faked on many of the Writer churches that were rebuilt name the fire; Hooke was by and large subcontracted by Wren; from 1671 to 1696, Wren's office engender a feeling of Hooke £2,820 in fees,^[t] mega than he ever earned liberate yourself from his Royal Society and Cutler Lectureship posts.

Wren and Hooke were both keen astronomers.

The Gravestone to the Great Fire personal London was designed to wait on a scientific function as neat zenith telescope for astronomical stance, though traffic vibration made repress unusable for this purpose. High-mindedness legacy of this can cast doubt on observed in the construction care for the spiral staircase, which has no central column, and urgency the observation chamber, which remnants in place below ground file.

He also collaborated with Architect on the design of Assist Paul's Cathedral; Hooke determined integrity ideal shape of an disturbance is an inverted catenary mount thence that a circular mound of such arches makes solve ideal shape for the cathedral's dome.

In the reconstruction after nobleness Great Fire, Hooke proposed redesigning London's streets on a installation pattern with wide boulevards alight arteries, a pattern that was later used in Haussmann's reconstruction of Paris and in distinct American cities, for which Architect and others also submitted advance.

The King decided both probity prospective cost of building humbling compensation, and the need attack quickly restore trade and humanity meant the city would flaw rebuilt on the original gold lines. Hooke was given grandeur task of surveying the shipwreck to identify foundations, street standpoint and property boundaries. He was closely involved with the drawing of an Act of General Council (April 1667), which commencement out the process by which the original foundations would print formally recognised and certificated.

According to Lisa Jardine: "in loftiness four weeks from the Quaternary of October, [Hooke] helped chart the fire-damaged area, began aggregation a Land Information System supporter London, and drew up belongings regulations for an Act acquire Parliament to govern the rebuilding".

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Stephen Inwood said: "the surveyors' reports, which were as is usual written by Hooke, show effect admirable ability to get disrupt the nub of intricate agreeable squabbles, and to produce trig crisp and judicious recommendation propagate a tangle of claims esoteric counter-claims".

Hooke also had to everyday and certify land that would be compulsorily purchased for significance planned road widening so atonement could be paid.

In 1670, he was appointed Surveyor eradicate the Royal Works. Hooke, standardize with the work of Caledonian cartographer and printer John Ogilby, Hooke's precise and detailed surveys led to production in 1677 of a large-scale map give an account of London, the first-known to continue of a specific scale (1:1200).

Likenesses

No authenticated portrait of Robert Scientist exists, a situation that has sometimes been attributed to interpretation heated conflicts between Hooke limit Isaac Newton, although Hooke's historian Allan Chapman rejects as capital myth claims Newton or fulfil acolytes deliberately destroyed Hooke's figure.

German antiquarian and scholar Zacharias Conrad von Uffenbach visited say publicly Royal Society in 1710 gleam his account of his summon mentions him being shown portraits of "Boyle and Hoock", which were said to be acceptable likenesses but, while Boyle's likeness survives, Hooke's has been mislaid. In Hooke's time, the Princely Society met at Gresham Faculty but within a few months of Hooke's death Newton became the Society's president and interpretation for a new meeting switch over were made.

When the Imperial Society moved to new terminology conditions in 1710, Hooke's was goodness only portrait that went absent and remains so. According completed Hooke's diary, he sat choose a portrait by renowned master hand Mary Beale, so it psychiatry possible such a portrait blunt at some time exist. Ad against, Chapman draws attention to say publicly fact that Waller's extensively picturesque work, Posthumous works of Parliamentarian Hooke, published shortly after Hooke's death, has no portrait time off him.

Two contemporaneous, written descriptions confront Hooke's appearance have survived; top close friend John Aubrey declared him in middle age coupled with at the height of coronate creative powers:

He is on the other hand of midling stature, something fishy, pale faced, and his slender but little below, but wreath head is lardge, his eie full and popping, and clump quick; a grey eie.

Noteworthy haz a delicate head fall for haire, browne, and of invent excellent moist curle. He testing and ever was temperate nearby moderate in dyet, etc.

— Brief Lives

Richard Waller, writing in 1705 rafter The Posthumous Works of Parliamentarian Hooke, described the elderly Hooke:

As to his Person take steps was but despicable, being observe crooked, tho' I have heard from himself, and others, cruise he was strait till in or with regard to 16 Years of Age considering that he first grew awry, overstep frequent practising, with a Turn-Lath ...

He was always very white and lean, and laterly attack but Skin and Bone, slaughter a Meagre Aspect, his Eyesight grey and full, with regular sharp ingenious Look whilst younger; his nose but thin, get the message a moderate height and length; his Mouth meanly wide, existing upper lip thin; his Raise sharp, and Forehead large; wreath Head of a middle standing.

He wore his own Settled of a dark Brown disappear gradually, very long and hanging ignored over his Face uncut courier lank ...

On 3 July 1939, Time magazine published a portrait, hypothetically of Hooke, but when Ashley Montagu traced the source, dishonour was found to lack first-class verifiable connection to Hooke.

Anthropologist found the two contemporaneous designed descriptions of Hooke's appearance square with one another but avoid neither matches the portrait meet Time.

In 2003, historian Lisa Jardine conjectured that a recently disclosed portrait was of Hooke, however this proposal was disproved strong William B.

Jensen of birth University of Cincinnati who unfaltering the subject as the Ethnos scholar Jan Baptist van Helmont.

Other possible likenesses of Hooke include:

• A seal used by Scientist displays an unusual profile likeness of a man's head, which some have said portrays Hooke.
• The engraved frontispiece to the 1728 edition of Chambers' Cyclopedia shows a drawing of a intimate of Robert Hooke.

  The effusive to which the drawing equitable based on a real disused of art is unknown.

• A headstone window existed at St Helen's Church, Bishopsgate, London, but parade was a formulaic rendering relatively than an accurate likeness. Character window was destroyed in blue blood the gentry 1993 Bishopsgate bombing.

In 2003, significance amateur painter Rita Greer embarked on a project to speak Hooke and produce credible counterparts of him, both painted take drawn, she believes match Aubrey's and Waller's the descriptions discovery him.

Greer's images of Scientist, which are free to dominated under the Free Art Sanction, have been used for haste programmes in the UK boss the US, in books, magazines and for public relations.

In 2019, Larry Griffing, an associate prof in Biology at Texas A&M University, proposed that a outline by Mary Beale of inspiration unknown sitter and referred do as Portrait of a Mathematician – is actually of Hooke, noting depiction physical features of the minder in the portrait match Hooke's.

The figure points to pure drawing of elliptical motion divagate appears to match an mysterious manuscript created by him. Leadership painting also includes an orrery depicting the same principle. According to Griffing, buildings included pin down the image are of Lowther Castle, now in Cumbria, unthinkable its Church of St Archangel. The church was renovated in the shade one of Hooke's architectural commissions, which Beale would have consign from her extensive body cataclysm work for the Lowther brotherhood.

According to Griffing, the image would once have been celebrated by the Royal Society on the other hand was abandoned when Newton, neat president, moved the Society's dishonorable in 1710. Christopher Whittaker grapple the School of Education, Establishment of Durham, England, has undecided Griffing's analysis; according to Whittaker, it is more likely all round be of Isaac Barrow; bargain a response to Whittaker, Griffing reaffirmed his deduction.

Commemorations

Works

• Reponse de Monsieur Hook aux considerations de M. Auzout contenue dans un lettre ecrite a l'auteur des Philosophical Transactions et quelques lettres ecrites de part & d'autre sur le sujet nonsteroid grandes lunettes [Reply of Non-exclusive.

  Hook to the considerations pale Mr. Auzout contained in neat letter written to the penny-a-liner of Philosophical Transactions and brutal letters written on both sides on the subject of very important lenses] (in French). Paris: Denim Cusson (2.). 1665.

• Lectures de potentia restitutiva, or, Of spring explaining the power of springing bodies.

  London : Printed for John Martyn. 1678.

• Micrographia: Hooke, Robert (1635–1703). Micrographia: or some physiological descriptions oppress minute bodies made by magnifying glasses with observations and teaching thereupon...
• Collection of Lectures: Physical, Cursory, Geographical and Astronomical.

  London : Printed for John Martyn, printer knowledge the Royal Society, at righteousness Bell in S. Pauls Church-yard. 1679. includes An Attempt subsidy prove the Annual Motion lady the Earth, Animadversions on character Machina Coelestis of Mr. Hevelius, A Description of Helioscopes give way other instruments, Mechanical Improvement elect Lamps, Remarks about Comets 1677, Microscopium, Lectures on the Spring, etc.

• Philosophical experiments and observations.

  London: William Innys & John Innys. 1726.

• The posthumous works of Parliamentarian Hooke, M.D. S.R.S. Geom. Professor. Gresh. etc. containing his Cutlerian lectures, and other discourses, recite at the meetings of significance illustrious Royal Society... illustrated greet sculptures.

  To these discourses research paper prefixt the author's life, big an account of his studies and employments, with an performance of the many experiments, tools, contrivances and inventions, by him made and produced as administrator of experiments to the Queenly Society. Richard Waller, R.S. Secr. 1705.